Greek cases are the backbone of sentence structure, each one signaling a distinct role. The nominative marks the subject or equates it with something (ὁ θεός φῶς ἐστιν), while the genitive shows possession, origin, or relationship (τοῦ διδασκάλου, Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ). The dative handles indirect objects, instruments, and locations (τῷ παιδίῳ, ἐν τῇ πόλει), and the accusative targets direct objects or measures of time and space (τὸν ἄνδρα, τρεῖς ἡμέρας). The vocative calls out directly—κύριε, ἄνθρωπε. These endings do more than mark grammar; they shape meaning, reveal emphasis, and unlock interpretive depth, especially in texts where theology and syntax intertwine.
Overview of the Case System
Greek uses a system of morphological case endings to indicate the grammatical function of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and participles within a sentence. In Koine Greek, there are five primary cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and vocative. Each case signals specific syntactic and semantic roles, and agreement in case is required between a noun and its modifiers.
Nominative Case
Primary Function: Subject of a verb; predicate nominative.
Usage: The nominative marks the noun that performs the action of the verb or that is equated with the subject through a linking verb.
- ὁ ἀνήρ γράφει – “The man writes.” (subject)
- ὁ θεός φῶς ἐστιν – “God is light.” (predicate nominative)
Genitive Case
Primary Function: Possession, source, description, and various relational meanings.
Usage: The genitive often answers “of whom/what?” and can show possession, origin, relationship, or kind.
- τὸ βιβλίον τοῦ διδασκάλου – “the teacher’s book” (possession)
- ὁ ἀπόστολος Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ – “the apostle of Jesus Christ” (relationship)
- φωνὴ ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ – “a voice from heaven” (source/origin)
Dative Case
Primary Function: Indirect object, means/instrument, location, association.
Usage: The dative can answer “to/for whom?” (indirect object), “by/with what?” (means), or “in/at where?” (location).
- δίδωσι τῷ παιδίῳ ἄρτον – “He gives bread to the child.” (indirect object)
- γράφω τῇ καλάμῳ – “I write with the reed-pen.” (means/instrument)
- ἐν τῇ πόλει – “in the city.” (location)
Accusative Case
Primary Function: Direct object of a verb; extent of time or space; object of many prepositions.
Usage: The accusative most often marks the noun that directly receives the action of the verb, but also expresses limits of measure.
- βλέπω τὸν ἄνδρα – “I see the man.” (direct object)
- ἔμεινεν τρεῖς ἡμέρας – “He stayed three days.” (extent of time)
- διέρχεται τὴν πόλιν – “He goes through the city.” (extent of space)
Vocative Case
Primary Function: Direct address.
Usage: The vocative is used when speaking directly to someone or something. In many masculine second-declension nouns, the vocative singular ending differs from the nominative.
- ἄνθρωπε, ἄκουσον – “Man, listen!”
- κύριε, σῶσον ἡμᾶς – “Lord, save us!”
Summary Table of Functions
| Case | Primary Functions | Example | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Subject, predicate nominative | ὁ ἀνήρ γράφει | The man writes |
| Genitive | Possession, source, description | τὸ βιβλίον τοῦ διδασκάλου | The teacher’s book |
| Dative | Indirect object, means, location | δίδωσι τῷ παιδίῳ ἄρτον | He gives bread to the child |
| Accusative | Direct object, extent of time/space | βλέπω τὸν ἄνδρα | I see the man |
| Vocative | Direct address | κύριε | Lord! |
Practical Observations
Mastering the Greek case system is essential for accurate interpretation. Unlike English, which relies heavily on word order, Greek uses case endings to signal syntactic roles, allowing for more flexible word order. In exegesis, the precise meaning of a passage can hinge on recognizing the nuance a case provides, especially in prepositional phrases, genitive constructions, or dative expressions of manner and means.
