Greek declensions shape how nouns express case and number, revealing their role in a sentence regardless of word order. First-declension nouns like ἡμέρα or προφήτης follow α/η-stem patterns, mostly feminine but with some masculine forms. Second-declension nouns such as λόγος and ἔργον use ο-stems, with masculine and neuter endings that are predictably regular—especially in neuter, where nominative, accusative, and vocative match. The third declension is more complex: nouns like πατήρ or σῶμα show stem shifts and irregular endings, often requiring memorization. These patterns aren’t just grammatical—they’re interpretive tools, helping readers track emphasis, relationships, and theological nuance across Greek texts.
Overview of Greek Declensions
Greek nouns are organized into three main declensions, each with characteristic stem types, endings, and patterns of accentuation. Declension determines how a noun changes form to express case (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative) and number (singular, plural). While Koine Greek retains the basic patterns from Classical Greek, some irregularities and sound changes affect certain forms.
First Declension (α/η-Stems)
General Pattern: Stems ending in -α or -η, predominantly feminine, with a few masculine nouns (often ending in -ης or -ας in the nominative singular).
Example (Feminine, long-α type): ἡμέρα – “day”
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ἡμέρα | ἡμέραι |
| Genitive | ἡμέρας | ἡμερῶν |
| Dative | ἡμέρᾳ | ἡμέραις |
| Accusative | ἡμέραν | ἡμέρας |
| Vocative | ἡμέρα | ἡμέραι |
Masculine Examples: προφήτης – “prophet”, νεανίας – “young man” (retain first-declension endings but with masculine article forms).
Second Declension (ο-Stems)
General Pattern: Stems ending in -ο, producing nominative singular endings -ος (masculine/feminine) and -ον (neuter). This declension is very common in both masculine and neuter nouns.
Example (Masculine): λόγος – “word”
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | λόγος | λόγοι |
| Genitive | λόγου | λόγων |
| Dative | λόγῳ | λόγοις |
| Accusative | λόγον | λόγους |
| Vocative | λόγε | λόγοι |
Example (Neuter): ἔργον – “work” follows the same endings except nominative, accusative, and vocative are identical in each number (ἔργον / ἔργα).
Third Declension (Consonant- and Vowel-Stems)
General Pattern: Highly variable stems, often ending in consonants (stops, nasals, liquids) or certain vowels. The nominative singular frequently shows stem changes due to phonological rules; genitive singular usually ends in -ος.
Example (Consonant-Stem): πατήρ – “father”
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | πατήρ | πατέρες |
| Genitive | πατρός | πατέρων |
| Dative | πατρί | πατράσι(ν) |
| Accusative | πατέρα | πατέρας |
| Vocative | πάτερ | πατέρες |
Other third-declension nouns include neuters like σῶμα – “body” (stem σωματ-), where nominative/accusative/vocative singular end in -μα and plural in -ματα.
Common Irregularities and Notes
- Stem Changes: In the third declension, consonant clusters simplify or vowels lengthen in certain cases.
- Contracted Forms: Some first-declension nouns contract vowels before endings (common in Attic Greek).
- Defective Nouns: Some nouns lack certain forms, relying on synonyms or periphrasis.
- Attic vs. Koine Forms: Koine often regularizes irregular Attic endings, though older forms persist in quotations and poetic contexts.
Practical Observations
Recognizing declension patterns is critical for parsing nouns in Greek. Endings reveal both the case and the number, allowing flexible word order. In exegesis, case endings may signal emphasis or nuance, especially when a word appears fronted or separated from its article. The third declension’s stem variations often require memorization, but they also reflect historical phonology that can assist in identifying cognates and derivatives.
