Stylistic devices such as chiasmus, inclusio, and anaphora are not only literary ornaments in ancient texts, but integral features of New Testament Greek discourse. These rhetorical structures shape the way meaning is conveyed, arguments are emphasized, and memory is facilitated in oral and written proclamation. Recognizing and interpreting these features provides deeper exegetical insight and highlights the aesthetic sophistication of the New Testament authors, many of whom were trained in both Semitic and Greco-Roman rhetorical traditions.
1. Chiasmus: Inverted Parallelism
Chiasmus (from the Greek χίασμα, “crosswise arrangement”) is a literary device in which elements are presented in one order (A-B) and then repeated in reverse order (B-A). It emphasizes the central pivot and often highlights a thematic reversal or climactic focus.
1.1 Definition and Form
The basic structure of a chiastic pattern is:
A
B
C
B′
A′
More compact forms, such as A-B-B′-A′, are also common.
1.2 Example from the New Testament
Matthew 23:12:
Ὅστις δὲ ὑψώσει ἑαυτὸν, ταπεινωθήσεται· καὶ ὅστις ταπεινώσει ἑαυτὸν, ὑψωθήσεται.
A – ὑψώσει ἑαυτὸν B – ταπεινωθήσεται B′ – ταπεινώσει ἑαυτὸν A′ – ὑψωθήσεται
This is a classic chiasm with moral inversion: the one who exalts will be humbled, and the one who humbles will be exalted.
1.3 Function of Chiasmus
- Highlights contrast and reversal
- Draws attention to the center or turning point
- Reinforces memorability and oral recitation
2. Inclusio: Framing with Repetition
Inclusio is a literary device that uses the repetition of key words or phrases at the beginning and end of a passage to form a frame. It signals unity and helps readers discern boundaries within a text.
2.1 Definition and Structure
Inclusio operates through lexical or thematic bracketing:
A – Statement or keyword ...intervening content... A′ – Repetition of initial element
2.2 Example from the New Testament
Matthew 1:23 – 28:20: Jesus is introduced as “Emmanuel” – “God with us” (1:23), and ends with “I am with you always” (28:20).
A – “καὶ καλέσουσιν τὸ ὄνομα αὐτοῦ Ἐμμανουήλ” (1:23) ... A′ – “ἰδοὺ ἐγὼ μεθ’ ὑμῶν εἰμι πάσας τὰς ἡμέρας” (28:20)
This inclusio reinforces the theme of divine presence throughout the Gospel narrative.
2.3 Function of Inclusio
- Marks textual units for interpretive clarity
- Emphasizes thematic continuity
- Creates cohesion across long discourses
3. Anaphora: Repetition at the Beginning
Anaphora is a rhetorical technique involving the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences. It is common in both classical and biblical Greek for emphasis and rhythm.
3.1 Definition and Form
Structure:
A – repeated opening A – repeated opening A – repeated opening
3.2 Example from the New Testament
Romans 8:38–39:
οὔτε θάνατος οὔτε ζωή, οὔτε ἄγγελοι οὔτε ἀρχαί… οὔτε παρὼντα οὔτε μέλλοντα… οὔτε ὕψωμα οὔτε βάθος…
Here, the repetition of οὔτε (“nor”) provides rhythmic emphasis on what cannot separate believers from the love of God.
3.3 Function of Anaphora
- Builds intensity and rhetorical force
- Unifies and emphasizes a theme
- Assists memorization and oral delivery
4. Comparative Summary of Features
| Device | Structure | Function | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Chiasmus | ABBA / ABCBA | Highlight contrast, focus on center | Matt 23:12 |
| Inclusio | A…A′ | Frame unit, thematic cohesion | Matt 1:23 / 28:20 |
| Anaphora | A A A… | Emphasis, rhetorical rhythm | Rom 8:38–39 |
5. Scholarly Implications for Exegesis
Understanding these rhetorical structures enables deeper exegesis by:
- Identifying authorial intent and argument flow
- Recognizing structural clues for thematic development
- Appreciating the artistry and orality of NT Greek composition
Many of these patterns reflect Hebraic parallelism adapted into Hellenistic rhetorical forms. Their presence shows that New Testament authors were not only theologians, but also sophisticated literary craftsmen.
6. Theological and Literary Harmony
The use of chiasmus, inclusio, and anaphora reflects more than stylistic elegance. These devices encode theological meaning, emphasize key themes like divine reversal, presence, and perseverance, and ensure that oral delivery remained compelling and memorable. Their function in New Testament Greek is both a window into ancient literary practice and a testimony to the care with which sacred texts were composed.
